Emperor
sON OF HEAVEN
The Son of Heaven was a title of the Emperor based on the Mandate of Heaven. The Son of Heaven is a universal emperor who rules tianxia ("all under heaven"). The title comes from the Mandate of Heaven, created by the monarchs of the Zhou dynasty (1050 - 770 BC) to justify deposing the Shang dynasty (1600-1050 BC). They declared that Heaven had revoked the mandate from the Shang and given it to the Zhou in retaliation for their corruption and misrule. Heaven bestowed the mandate to whoever was best fit to rule. The title held the emperor responsible for the prosperity and security of his people through the threat of losing the mandate.
Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
mULTIPLE APPELLATION
The emperor has at least three names, used in different circumstances:
1- The personal name
It is the name the emperor has given when he is born. As in previous dynasties, the emperor's personal name became taboo after his accession.
The use of xuan 玄 ("mysterious", "profound") in the Kangxi Emperor's personal name Xuanye 玄燁, for example, forced printers of Buddhist and Daoist books to replace this very common character with yuan 元 in all their books.
When the Yongzheng emperor, whose generation was the first in which all imperial sons shared a generational character as in Chinese clans, acceded the throne, he made all his brothers change the first character of their name from "Yin" 胤 to "Yun" 允 to avoid the taboo. Citing fraternal solidarity, his successor the Qianlong emperor simply removed one stroke from his own name and let his brothers keep their own.
2- The era name
An emperor's era name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political concerns of the court at the time. A new era name became effective on the first day of the New Year after that emperor's accession, which fell sometime between 21 January and 20 February (inclusively) of the Gregorian calendar. Even if an emperor died in the middle of the year, his era name was used for the rest of that year before the next era officially began. Because of this discrepancy between the first day of an era and the day of an emperor's accession, most emperors first reigned under their predecessor's era name.
Unlike in the Ming dynasty, the characters used in the era names of Qing emperors were taboo, that is, the characters contained in it could no longer be used in writing throughout the empire.
Why the era name?
Imperial China didn't used to follow the Gregorian calendar. Time was measured through the era name of every emperor. An era name was used to record dates, usually in the format "Reign-name Xth year, Yth month, Zth day". For example, if they wanted to refer to the year 1403, they would say "the second year of the Yongle era".
3- The posthumous name
Temple name
After their death, emperors were given a temple name and a honorific name under which they would be worshiped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple. On the spirit tablets that were displayed there, the temple name was followed by the honorific name, as in "Taizong Wen huangdi" for Hong Taiji. As dynastic founder, Nurhaci ("Taizu") became the focal ancestor in the main hall of the temple. The earlier paternal ancestors of the Qing imperial line were worshiped in a back hall.
The last emperor of a dynasty usually did not receive a temple name because his descendants were no longer in power when he died, and thus could not perpetuate the ancestral cult. Puyi, the last Qing monarch, reigned as the Xuantong emperor from 1908 to 1912, but did not receive a temple name.
Honorific posthumous name
After death emperors were given an honorific posthumous title that reflected their ruling style. Nurhaci's posthumous name was originally the "Martial Emperor" (武黃帝 wǔ huángdì)—to reflect his military exploits—but in 1662 it was changed to "Highest Emperor", that is, "the emperor from whom all others descend".
1- The personal name
It is the name the emperor has given when he is born. As in previous dynasties, the emperor's personal name became taboo after his accession.
The use of xuan 玄 ("mysterious", "profound") in the Kangxi Emperor's personal name Xuanye 玄燁, for example, forced printers of Buddhist and Daoist books to replace this very common character with yuan 元 in all their books.
When the Yongzheng emperor, whose generation was the first in which all imperial sons shared a generational character as in Chinese clans, acceded the throne, he made all his brothers change the first character of their name from "Yin" 胤 to "Yun" 允 to avoid the taboo. Citing fraternal solidarity, his successor the Qianlong emperor simply removed one stroke from his own name and let his brothers keep their own.
2- The era name
An emperor's era name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political concerns of the court at the time. A new era name became effective on the first day of the New Year after that emperor's accession, which fell sometime between 21 January and 20 February (inclusively) of the Gregorian calendar. Even if an emperor died in the middle of the year, his era name was used for the rest of that year before the next era officially began. Because of this discrepancy between the first day of an era and the day of an emperor's accession, most emperors first reigned under their predecessor's era name.
Unlike in the Ming dynasty, the characters used in the era names of Qing emperors were taboo, that is, the characters contained in it could no longer be used in writing throughout the empire.
Why the era name?
Imperial China didn't used to follow the Gregorian calendar. Time was measured through the era name of every emperor. An era name was used to record dates, usually in the format "Reign-name Xth year, Yth month, Zth day". For example, if they wanted to refer to the year 1403, they would say "the second year of the Yongle era".
3- The posthumous name
Temple name
After their death, emperors were given a temple name and a honorific name under which they would be worshiped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple. On the spirit tablets that were displayed there, the temple name was followed by the honorific name, as in "Taizong Wen huangdi" for Hong Taiji. As dynastic founder, Nurhaci ("Taizu") became the focal ancestor in the main hall of the temple. The earlier paternal ancestors of the Qing imperial line were worshiped in a back hall.
The last emperor of a dynasty usually did not receive a temple name because his descendants were no longer in power when he died, and thus could not perpetuate the ancestral cult. Puyi, the last Qing monarch, reigned as the Xuantong emperor from 1908 to 1912, but did not receive a temple name.
Honorific posthumous name
After death emperors were given an honorific posthumous title that reflected their ruling style. Nurhaci's posthumous name was originally the "Martial Emperor" (武黃帝 wǔ huángdì)—to reflect his military exploits—but in 1662 it was changed to "Highest Emperor", that is, "the emperor from whom all others descend".
SUCCESSION
The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased Emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress, not from a royal concubine, succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes, the emperor, while still living, often designated a Crown Prince (太子). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.